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what are the limitations in generalizing findings from model organisms to human biology

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Organisms used to study biology across species

A model organism (oft shortened to model) is a non-human being species that is extensively studied to sympathize particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the model organism volition provide insight into the workings of other organisms.[1] [ii] Model organisms are widely used to research human disease when man experimentation would exist unfeasible or unethical.[three] This strategy is made possible past the common descent of all living organisms, and the conservation of metabolic and developmental pathways and genetic textile over the class of evolution.[4]

Studying model organisms can exist informative, just care must be taken when generalizing from i organism to another.[five] [ page needed ]

In researching human being disease, model organisms allow for better understanding the affliction process without the added risk of harming an actual man. The species called will unremarkably meet a determined taxonomic equivalency[ clarification needed ] to humans, so equally to react to disease or its treatment in a mode that resembles human physiology as needed. Although biological activity in a model organism does non ensure an effect in humans, many drugs, treatments and cures for homo diseases are developed in part with the guidance of fauna models.[half-dozen] [7] There are three main types of illness models: homologous, isomorphic and predictive. Homologous animals take the aforementioned causes, symptoms and handling options as would humans who have the same affliction. Isomorphic animals share the same symptoms and treatments. Predictive models are similar to a particular homo disease in but a couple of aspects, but are useful in isolating and making predictions most mechanisms of a set of illness features.[8]

History [edit]

The use of animals in research dates dorsum to ancient Greece, with Aristotle (384–322 BCE) and Erasistratus (304–258 BCE) among the first to perform experiments on living animals.[nine] Discoveries in the 18th and 19th centuries included Antoine Lavoisier's use of a guinea pig in a calorimeter to prove that respiration was a form of combustion, and Louis Pasteur's sit-in of the germ theory of disease in the 1880s using anthrax in sheep.

Research using fauna models has been central to many of the achievements of modern medicine.[x] [11] [12] It has contributed most of the bones cognition in fields such every bit homo physiology and biochemistry, and has played pregnant roles in fields such as neuroscience and infectious disease.[xiii] [14] For example, the results take included the nearly-eradication of polio and the development of organ transplantation, and take benefited both humans and animals.[10] [xv] From 1910 to 1927, Thomas Hunt Morgan'southward work with the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster identified chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes.[16] [17] Drosophila became 1 of the first, and for some time the most widely used, model organisms,[18] and Eric Kandel wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biological science into an experimental scientific discipline."[19] D. melanogaster remains one of the most widely used eukaryotic model organisms. During the same fourth dimension flow, studies on mouse genetics in the laboratory of William Ernest Castle in collaboration with Abbie Lathrop led to generation of the DBA ("dilute, brownish and non-agouti") inbred mouse strain and the systematic generation of other inbred strains.[twenty] [21] The mouse has since been used extensively as a model organism and is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries.[22]

In the late 19th century, Emil von Behring isolated the diphtheria toxin and demonstrated its effects in guinea pigs. He went on to develop an antidote against diphtheria in animals and and then in humans, which resulted in the modern methods of immunization and largely ended diphtheria equally a threatening disease.[23] The diphtheria antidote is famously commemorated in the Iditarod race, which is modeled after the commitment of antidote in the 1925 serum run to Nome. The success of beast studies in producing the diphtheria antitoxin has also been attributed every bit a crusade for the decline of the early on 20th-century opposition to fauna research in the The states.[24]

Subsequent inquiry in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as Frederick Banting's research in dogs, which determined that the isolates of pancreatic secretion could be used to treat dogs with diabetes. This led to the 1922 discovery of insulin (with John Macleod)[25] and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death.[26] John Cade'south enquiry in republic of guinea pigs discovered the anticonvulsant properties of lithium salts,[27] which revolutionized the handling of bipolar disorder, replacing the previous treatments of lobotomy or electroconvulsive therapy. Modern general anaesthetics, such as halothane and related compounds, were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations.[28] [29]

In the 1940s, Jonas Salk used rhesus monkey studies to isolate the most virulent forms of the polio virus,[thirty] which led to his creation of a polio vaccine. The vaccine, which was fabricated publicly available in 1955, reduced the incidence of polio 15-fold in the U.s.a. over the following v years.[31] Albert Sabin improved the vaccine past passing the polio virus through beast hosts, including monkeys; the Sabin vaccine was produced for mass consumption in 1963, and had about eradicated polio in the U.s.a. by 1965.[32] It has been estimated that developing and producing the vaccines required the use of 100,000 rhesus monkeys, with 65 doses of vaccine produced from each monkey. Sabin wrote in 1992, "Without the apply of animals and human beings, it would have been impossible to acquire the important knowledge needed to foreclose much suffering and premature death not only among humans, but also among animals."[33]

Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include organ transplant techniques,[34] [35] [36] [37] the heart-lung machine,[38] antibiotics,[39] [forty] [41] and the whooping cough vaccine.[42] Treatments for animal diseases accept besides been adult, including for rabies,[43] anthrax,[43] glanders,[43] feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV),[44] tuberculosis,[43] Texas cattle fever,[43] classical swine fever (hog cholera),[43] heartworm, and other parasitic infections.[45] Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research,[46] and is used with the aim of solving medical issues such every bit Alzheimer's disease,[47] AIDS,[48] [49] [l] multiple sclerosis,[51] spinal cord injury, many headaches,[52] and other conditions in which there is no useful in vitro model organization available.

Option [edit]

Models are those organisms with a wealth of biological data that make them attractive to study as examples for other species and/or natural phenomena that are more hard to report directly. Continual enquiry on these organisms focuses on a wide variety of experimental techniques and goals from many dissimilar levels of biology—from ecology, behavior and biomechanics, downwardly to the tiny functional scale of individual tissues, organelles and proteins. Inquiries virtually the DNA of organisms are classed as genetic models (with short generation times, such as the fruitfly and nematode worm), experimental models, and genomic parsimony models, investigating pivotal position in the evolutionary tree.[53] Historically, model organisms include a scattering of species with extensive genomic enquiry information, such as the NIH model organisms.[54]

Often, model organisms are chosen on the basis that they are amenable to experimental manipulation. This usually will include characteristics such as brusk life-cycle, techniques for genetic manipulation (inbred strains, stalk cell lines, and methods of transformation) and not-specialist living requirements. Sometimes, the genome system facilitates the sequencing of the model organism's genome, for case, by being very compact or having a depression proportion of junk DNA (east.g. yeast, arabidopsis, or pufferfish).

When researchers look for an organism to utilise in their studies, they await for several traits. Among these are size, generation time, accessibility, manipulation, genetics, conservation of mechanisms, and potential economic benefit. As comparative molecular biological science has become more common, some researchers have sought model organisms from a wider assortment of lineages on the tree of life.

Phylogeny and genetic relatedness [edit]

The principal reason for the use of model organisms in inquiry is the evolutionary principle that all organisms share some degree of relatedness and genetic similarity due to common ancestry. The written report of taxonomic human relatives, and so, tin can provide a bully deal of information about mechanism and disease within the human trunk that tin can be useful in medicine.

Various phylogenetic trees for vertebrates have been constructed using comparative proteomics, genetics, genomics equally well equally the geochemical and fossil record.[55] These estimations tell united states of america that humans and chimpanzees last shared a mutual ancestor about 6 million years ago (mya). Equally our closest relatives, chimpanzees accept a lot of potential to tell us about mechanisms of disease (and what genes may be responsible for man intelligence). However, chimpanzees are rarely used in enquiry and are protected from highly invasive procedures. Rodents are the most common animal models. Phylogenetic trees judge that humans and rodents last shared a common ancestor ~80-100mya.[56] [57] Despite this distant dissever, humans and rodents have far more than similarities than they practice differences. This is due to the relative stability of large portions of the genome, making the use of vertebrate animals particularly productive.

Genomic information is used to make close comparisons betwixt species and determine relatedness. As humans, we share almost 99% of our genome with chimpanzees[58] [59] (98.7% with bonobos)[60] and over 90% with the mouse.[57] With so much of the genome conserved beyond species, it is relatively impressive that the differences betwixt humans and mice can be deemed for in approximately vi thousand genes (of ~xxx,000 total). Scientists have been able to take advantage of these similarities in generating experimental and predictive models of man illness.

Use [edit]

In that location are many model organisms. One of the beginning model systems for molecular biological science was the bacterium Escherichia coli, a mutual constituent of the man digestive system. Several of the bacterial viruses (bacteriophage) that infect E. coli too have been very useful for the written report of gene structure and cistron regulation (eastward.g. phages Lambda and T4). Yet, it is debated whether bacteriophages should be classified as organisms, because they lack metabolism and depend on functions of the host cells for propagation.[61]

In eukaryotes, several yeasts, particularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae ("baker's" or "budding" yeast), take been widely used in genetics and jail cell biology, largely because they are quick and easy to grow. The cell wheel in a uncomplicated yeast is very similar to the cell wheel in humans and is regulated by homologous proteins. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is studied, again, considering it is like shooting fish in a barrel to abound for an animate being, has diverse visible congenital traits and has a polytene (giant) chromosome in its salivary glands that can be examined under a calorie-free microscope. The roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans is studied considering it has very divers development patterns involving stock-still numbers of cells, and information technology tin can be rapidly assayed for abnormalities.

Disease models [edit]

Creature models serving in research may have an existing, inbred or induced disease or injury that is similar to a human being condition. These test conditions are often termed every bit animate being models of disease. The utilize of creature models allows researchers to investigate disease states in ways which would be inaccessible in a human patient, performing procedures on the non-human animal that imply a level of impairment that would not be considered ethical to inflict on a human.

The all-time models of disease are similar in etiology (mechanism of cause) and phenotype (signs and symptoms) to the man equivalent. However complex human diseases tin frequently be improve understood in a simplified system in which private parts of the disease process are isolated and examined. For instance, behavioral analogues of feet or pain in laboratory animals tin can exist used to screen and test new drugs for the treatment of these weather in humans. A 2000 report found that fauna models concorded (coincided on true positives and imitation negatives) with human toxicity in 71% of cases, with 63% for nonrodents lonely and 43% for rodents alone.[62]

In 1987, Davidson et al. suggested that option of an animal model for inquiry exist based on nine considerations. These include "1) appropriateness as an analog, 2) transferability of information, 3) genetic uniformity of organisms, where applicable, 4) background noesis of biological properties, 5) cost and availability, vi) generalizability of the results, seven) ease of and adjustability to experimental manipulation, eight) ecological consequences, and 9) ethical implications."[63]

Beast models tin be classified as homologous, isomorphic or predictive. Animal models tin can besides exist more than broadly classified into four categories: i) experimental, two) spontaneous, iii) negative, iv) orphan.[64]

Experimental models are about common. These refer to models of illness that resemble homo conditions in phenotype or response to treatment but are induced artificially in the laboratory. Some examples include:

  • The utilize of metrazol (pentylenetetrazol) as an creature model of epilepsy[65]
  • Consecration of mechanical brain injury every bit an fauna model of mail-traumatic epilepsy[66]
  • Injection of the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine to dopaminergic parts of the basal ganglia as an animal model of Parkinson's disease.[67]
  • Immunisation with an auto-antigen to induce an immune response to model autoimmune diseases such equally Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis[68]
  • Apoplexy of the eye cerebral avenue as an animal model of ischemic stroke[69]
  • Injection of blood in the basal ganglia of mice as a model for hemorrhagic stroke[70] [71]
  • Sepsis and septic daze induction past impairing the integrity of bulwark tissues, administering live pathogens or toxins[72]
  • Infecting animals with pathogens to reproduce human infectious diseases
  • Injecting animals with agonists or antagonists of various neurotransmitters to reproduce human mental disorders
  • Using ionizing radiations to cause tumors
  • Using gene transfer to cause tumors[73] [74]
  • Implanting animals with tumors to exam and develop treatments using ionizing radiation
  • Genetically selected (such as in diabetic mice also known as NOD mice)[75]
  • Various animate being models for screening of drugs for the handling of glaucoma
  • The use of the ovariectomized rat in osteoporosis research
  • Use of Plasmodium yoelii as a model of human malaria[76] [77] [78]

Spontaneous models refer to diseases that are analogous to human conditions that occur naturally in the animal existence studied. These models are rare, but informative. Negative models essentially refer to control animals, which are useful for validating an experimental result. Orphan models refer to diseases for which there is no homo analog and occur exclusively in the species studied.[64]

The increase in cognition of the genomes of not-human primates and other mammals that are genetically close to humans is allowing the production of genetically engineered animal tissues, organs and even animate being species which limited human being diseases, providing a more robust model of human diseases in an animal model.

Fauna models observed in the sciences of psychology and folklore are often termed creature models of beliefs. It is difficult to build an animate being model that perfectly reproduces the symptoms of depression in patients. Low, as other mental disorders, consists of endophenotypes[79] that tin be reproduced independently and evaluated in animals. An platonic beast model offers an opportunity to understand molecular, genetic and epigenetic factors that may lead to depression. By using animal models, the underlying molecular alterations and the causal relationship between genetic or environmental alterations and depression can exist examined, which would beget a better insight into pathology of depression. In addition, animal models of low are indispensable for identifying novel therapies for depression.[lxxx] [81]

Of import model organisms [edit]

Model organisms are drawn from all three domains of life, equally well equally viruses. The virtually widely studied prokaryotic model organism is Escherichia coli (E. coli), which has been intensively investigated for over lx years. Information technology is a common, gram-negative gut bacterium which tin can be grown and cultured easily and inexpensively in a laboratory setting. Information technology is the well-nigh widely used organism in molecular genetics, and is an important species in the fields of biotechnology and microbiology, where it has served as the host organism for the majority of work with recombinant DNA.[82]

Uncomplicated model eukaryotes include baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe), both of which share many characters with higher cells, including those of humans. For case, many cell sectionalization genes that are critical for the development of cancer have been discovered in yeast. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, a unicellular green alga with well-studied genetics, is used to report photosynthesis and motion. C. reinhardtii has many known and mapped mutants and expressed sequence tags, and there are advanced methods for genetic transformation and selection of genes.[83] Dictyostelium discoideum is used in molecular biological science and genetics, and is studied as an example of cell communication, differentiation, and programmed jail cell expiry.

Among invertebrates, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is famous as the subject of genetics experiments by Thomas Hunt Morgan and others. They are hands raised in the lab, with rapid generations, high fecundity, few chromosomes, and easily induced observable mutations.[84] The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is used for understanding the genetic control of development and physiology. It was showtime proposed equally a model for neuronal development by Sydney Brenner in 1963, and has been extensively used in many unlike contexts since and then.[85] [86] C. elegans was the offset multicellular organism whose genome was completely sequenced, and every bit of 2012, the only organism to accept its connectome (neuronal "wiring diagram") completed.[87] [88]

Arabidopsis thaliana is currently the most pop model plant. Its minor stature and short generation time facilitates rapid genetic studies,[89] and many phenotypic and biochemical mutants accept been mapped.[89] A. thaliana was the first institute to take its genome sequenced.[89]

Among vertebrates, republic of guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) were used by Robert Koch and other early bacteriologists as a host for bacterial infections, condign a catchword for "laboratory animal," but are less usually used today. The classic model vertebrate is currently the mouse (Mus musculus). Many inbred strains be, as well as lines selected for particular traits, frequently of medical interest, e.g. torso size, obesity, muscularity, and voluntary wheel-running beliefs.[ninety] The rat (Rattus norvegicus) is particularly useful equally a toxicology model, and as a neurological model and source of primary jail cell cultures, owing to the larger size of organs and suborganellar structures relative to the mouse, while eggs and embryos from Xenopus tropicalis and Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog) are used in developmental biological science, cell biology, toxicology, and neuroscience.[91] [92] As well, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) has a nearly transparent trunk during early development, which provides unique visual admission to the animal's internal beefcake during this fourth dimension period. Zebrafish are used to study development, toxicology and toxicopathology,[93] specific cistron function and roles of signaling pathways.

Other important model organisms and some of their uses include: T4 phage (viral infection), Tetrahymena thermophila (intracellular processes), maize (transposons), hydras (regeneration and morphogenesis),[94] cats (neurophysiology), chickens (development), dogs (respiratory and cardiovascular systems), Nothobranchius furzeri (aging),[95] and non-human being primates such as the rhesus macaque and chimpanzee (hepatitis, HIV, Parkinson's illness, cognition, and vaccines).

Selected model organisms [edit]

The organisms beneath have become model organisms considering they facilitate the study of certain characters or because of their genetic accessibility. For example, E. coli was ane of the first organisms for which genetic techniques such as transformation or genetic manipulation has been developed.

The genomes of all model species have been sequenced, including their mitochondrial/chloroplast genomes. Model organism databases exist to provide researchers with a portal from which to download sequences (Deoxyribonucleic acid, RNA, or protein) or to access functional information on specific genes, for example the sub-cellular localization of the gene product or its physiological role.

Model Organism Common name Informal classification Usage (examples)
Virus Phi X 174 ΦX174 Virus development[96]
Prokaryote Escherichia coli E. Coli Bacteria bacterial genetics, metabolism
Eukaryote, unicellular Dictyostelium discoideum Amoeba immunology, host–pathogen interactions[97]
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Brewer's yeast
Baker's yeast 		Yeast prison cell segmentation, organelles, etc.
Schizosaccharomyces pombe Fission yeast Yeast jail cell wheel, cytokinesis, chromosome biology, telomeres, DNA metabolism, cytoskeleton organization, industrial applications[98] [99]
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Algae hydrogen production[100]
Tetrahymena thermophila, T. pyriformis Ciliate educational activity,[101] biomedical research[102]
Emiliania huxleyi Plankton surface sea temperature[103]
Plant Arabidopsis thaliana Thale cress Flowering establish population genetics[104]
Physcomitrella patens Spreading earthmoss Moss molecular farming[105]
Populus trichocarpa Balsam popular Tree drought tolerance, lignin biosynthesis, woods formation, plant biology, morphology, genetics, and environmental[106]
Animate being, nonvertebrate Caenorhabditis elegans Nematode, Roundworm Worm differentiation, development
Drosophila melanogaster Fruit fly Insect developmental biological science, human brain degenerative disease[107] [108]
Callosobruchus maculatus Cowpea Weevil Insect developmental biology
Brute, vertebrate Danio rerio Zebrafish Fish embryonic development
Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog Fish effect of hormones on behavior[109]
Nothobranchius furzeri Turquoise killifish Fish crumbling, disease, evolution
Oryzias latipes Japanese rice fish Fish fish biology, sex determination[110]
Anolis carolinensis Carolina anole Reptile reptile biology, evolution
Mus musculus House mouse Mammal illness model for humans
Gallus gallus Red junglefowl Bird embryological development and organogenesis
Taeniopygia castanotis Australian zebra finch Bird vocal learning, neurobiology[111]
Xenopus laevis
Xenopus tropicalis [112] 		African clawed frog
Western clawed frog 		Amphibian embryonic evolution

Limitations [edit]

Many brute models serving as test subjects in biomedical research, such equally rats and mice, may be selectively sedentary, obese and glucose intolerant. This may derange their use to model human metabolic processes and diseases every bit these tin can be affected by dietary energy intake and practise.[113] Similarly, there are differences between the immune systems of model organisms and humans that lead to significantly altered responses to stimuli,[114] [115] [116] although the underlying principles of genome part may be the same.[116] The impoverished environments inside standard laboratory cages deny inquiry animals of the mental and concrete challenges are necessary for healthy emotional development.[117] Without day-to-day diversity, risks and rewards, and circuitous environments, some have argued that fauna models are irrelevant models of human experience.[118]

Mice differ from humans in several immune properties: mice are more resistant to some toxins than humans; take a lower full neutrophil fraction in the blood, a lower neutrophil enzymatic capacity, lower activity of the complement arrangement, and a dissimilar set of pentraxins involved in the inflammatory process; and lack genes for important components of the immune system, such as IL-8, IL-37, TLR10, ICAM-3, etc.[119] Laboratory mice reared in specific-pathogen-free (SPF) conditions unremarkably accept a rather young immune organisation with a deficit of memory T cells. These mice may accept limited diversity of the microbiota, which directly affects the immune arrangement and the development of pathological conditions. Moreover, persistent virus infections (for example, herpesviruses) are activated in humans, but not in SPF mice, with septic complications and may alter the resistance to bacterial coinfections. "Dirty" mice are possibly better suitable for mimicking human being pathologies. In add-on, inbred mouse strains are used in the overwhelming bulk of studies, while the human population is heterogeneous, pointing to the importance of studies in interstrain hybrid, outbred, and nonlinear mice.[120]

Unintended bias [edit]

Some studies suggests that inadequate published data in animal testing may result in irreproducible research, with missing details virtually how experiments are washed omitted from published papers or differences in testing that may introduce bias. Examples of hidden bias include a 2014 report from McGill University in Montreal, Canada which suggests that mice handled by men rather than women showed college stress levels.[121] [122] [123] Some other study in 2016 suggested that gut microbiomes in mice may have an impact upon scientific research.[124]

Alternatives [edit]

Ethical concerns, likewise as the cost, maintenance and relative inefficiency of animal research has encouraged development of alternative methods for the study of illness. Cell civilisation, or in vitro studies, provide an alternative that preserves the physiology of the living cell, but does non require the sacrifice of an fauna for mechanistic studies. Man, inducible pluripotent stem cells can also elucidate new mechanisms for understanding cancer and jail cell regeneration. Imaging studies (such equally MRI or PET scans) enable non-invasive study of human subjects. Recent advances in genetics and genomics tin can identify disease-associated genes, which tin can exist targeted for therapies.

Many biomedical researchers contend that there is no substitute for a living organism when studying complex interactions in disease pathology or treatments.[125] [126]

Ethics [edit]

Fence about the ethical use of animals in research dates at to the lowest degree as far dorsum every bit 1822 when the British Parliament under pressure from British and Indian intellectuals enacted the kickoff law for animal protection preventing cruelty to cattle.[127] This was followed by the Cruelty to Animals Act of 1835 and 1849, which criminalized sick-treating, over-driving, and torturing animals. In 1876, under pressure level from the National Anti-Vivisection Lodge, the Cruelty to Animals Act was amended to include regulations governing the apply of animals in research. This new act stipulated that 1) experiments must be proven absolutely necessary for teaching, or to relieve or prolong human being life; 2) animals must be properly anesthetized; and 3) animals must be killed as soon equally the experiment is over. Today, these three principles are central to the laws and guidelines governing the employ of animals and enquiry. In the U.Due south., the Animal Welfare Act of 1970 (see besides Laboratory Animate being Welfare Deed) set standards for animal use and care in research. This law is enforced by APHIS's Fauna Intendance program.[128]

In academic settings in which NIH funding is used for animal research, institutions are governed by the NIH Part of Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW). At each site, OLAW guidelines and standards are upheld by a local review board called the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). All laboratory experiments involving living animals are reviewed and approved past this committee. In addition to proving the potential for do good to homo health, minimization of pain and distress, and timely and humane euthanasia, experimenters must justify their protocols based on the principles of Replacement, Reduction and Refinement.[129]

"Replacement" refers to efforts to engage alternatives to animal use. This includes the use of computer models, non-living tissues and cells, and replacement of "higher-order" animals (primates and mammals) with "lower" order animals (e.m. cold-blooded animals, invertebrates, bacteria) wherever possible.[130]

"Reduction" refers to efforts to minimize number of animals used during the grade of an experiment, also every bit prevention of unnecessary replication of previous experiments. To satisfy this requirement, mathematical calculations of statistical ability are employed to make up one's mind the minimum number of animals that tin can be used to go a statistically meaning experimental event.

"Refinement" refers to efforts to make experimental design as painless and efficient as possible in order to minimize the suffering of each animal subject.

See also [edit]

  • Animals in space
  • Animal testing
  • Animal testing on invertebrates
  • Animal testing on rodents
  • Cellular model (numerical), eastward.1000., Mycoplasma genitalium.
  • Ensembl genome database of model organisms
  • Generic Model Organism Database
  • Genome projection
  • History of animal testing
  • History of model organisms
  • History of research on Arabidopsis thaliana
  • History of inquiry on Caenorhabditis elegans
  • Mouse models of breast cancer metastasis
  • Mouse models of colorectal and intestinal cancer
  • RefSeq - the Reference Sequence database

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  125. ^ "FDA: Why are animals used for testing medical products?". FDA. 2019-06-18.
  126. ^ "Guild Of Toxicology: Advancing valid alternatives". Archived from the original on 2013-01-05.
  127. ^ British animal protection legislation.
  128. ^ AWA policies.
  129. ^ NIH demand-to-know
  130. ^ list of common model organisms canonical for utilise by the NIH)

Further reading [edit]

  • Marx, Vivien (June 2014). "Models: stretching the skills of cell lines and mice". Nature Methods. xi (6): 617–620. doi:10.1038/nmeth.2966. PMID 24874573. S2CID 11798233.
  • Goldstein, Bob; King, Nicole (November 2016). "The Future of Prison cell Biological science: Emerging Model Organisms". Trends in Cell Biological science. 26 (11): 818–824. doi:ten.1016/j.tcb.2016.08.005. PMC5077642. PMID 27639630.
  • Lloyd, Kent; Franklin, Craig; Lutz, True cat; Magnuson, Terry (June 2015). "Reproducibility: Use mouse biobanks or lose them". Nature. 522 (7555): 151–153. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..151L. doi:10.1038/522151a. PMC4636083. PMID 26062496.

External links [edit]

  • Wellcome Trust description of model organisms
  • National Institutes of Health Comparative Medicine Program Vertebrate Models
  • NIH Using Model Organisms to Written report Human Disease
  • National Institutes of Health Model Organism Sharing Policy
  • Why are Animals Used in NIH Research
  • Disease Animate being Models – BSRC Alexander Fleming
  • Emice – National Cancer Plant
  • Knock Out Mouse Project – KOMP
  • Mouse Biology Program
  • Mutant Mouse Resources & Research Centers, National Institutes of Health, supported Mouse Repository
  • Rat Resources & Enquiry Eye – National Institutes of Health, supported Rat Repository
  • NIH Model Organism Research Reproducibility and Rigor

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism

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